Reviewed by Leonard Smuts for Readers' Favorite

The term “ghost in the machine” was first coined by Gilbert Ryle in 1949, and simplistically put, suggests that consciousness or the mind can exist alongside, but independently, within a physical entity. The Ghost in the Machine Reconsidered by Joshua Robertson revisits this and related theories, particularly the possibilities for self-modification. A key factor is metacognition, which refers to the awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes. The author reflects on the increasing complexity of human thought and behavior, and the slowness of our institutions to adapt to changing circumstances. He questions whether human action is merely a response to environmental conditions and whether human agency has been misunderstood. An interesting topic concerns temporal scaffolding, which arises when current experience and understanding shape future decisions. Libertarian freedom (individual responsibility and free choice) is contrasted with Determinism (the inevitable outcome of circumstance), while Compatibilism steers a middle course. Moral considerations, cultural influences, and religious beliefs also shape our judgment. Concepts such as the individual versus the group are examined, along with human consciousness, the consequences of actions, punishment, and moral responsibility. Society is in a state of flux with new technology such as AI and social media, raising concerns that AI is taking over our cognition and decision-making instead of augmenting our capacity.

In The Ghost in the Machine Reconsidered, neuroscience meets evolutionary psychology and philosophy in evaluating both freedom and the decision-making process. The philosophers, from Aristotle to Descartes, Spinoza, and others, are examined and their diverse arguments dissected. This work indirectly poses searching questions, such as whether philosophers are just as trapped in confining beliefs as the general public. Joshua Robertson points out that individuals are faced with social and economic pressures, cognitive bias, manipulation, exploitation, and artificial rewards. It is little wonder that they are seldom inclined to contemplate their own cognitive process, apply rational choice, or explore higher consciousness. They should nevertheless strive to develop the conditions under which their decisions are shaped by conscious participation. A list of sources for further reading and related scientific studies is provided, as well as an index. This is a complex work filled with compelling arguments and technical debate regarding the human condition. It will provide much material for the philosophically minded to consider, and is highly recommended to that audience.